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A Technological Perspective of Anytime, Anywhere Education

by Sloan-C

Abstract
In this paper we present a review of educational technologies and analyze their impact on the efforts to deliver anytime, anywhere education. First, we construct and analyze a 3D space for anytime, anywhere education. Then we map out the extent of pedagogical support for each possible modality using the descriptors content type, access means, and pedagogical method. This approach also serves to identify overlooked opportunities to meet educational goals. We propose pedagogical-technological combinations that can help education become an effective driver for innovation, and argue that technology supported education requires a balanced mix of content, access and method support.

I. INTRODUCTION

The lessons learned from the introduction of Information Technology (IT) into the corporate world may give us an idea of what is happening with education. Some argue that the productivity gains have been disappointing and usually difficult to quantify (except in areas with low profit margin and value) [6]. Although there is no consensus on whether IT-intensive areas including education have been dramatically improved, the consumption of technology continues to increase.

To understand the interaction between education and technology we consider three main descriptors which also define our framework. The first one is educational content. This descriptor reflects the strong influence of the publishing industry and the authoring software industry. The second descriptor is the access means, included because thanks to the advance in telecommunication networks it has been possible to challenge the traditional classroom as the primary means of access. The third and last descriptor is the pedagogical method. Pedagogy is undergoing a transformation partly driven by education research and partly triggered by the need to meet the expectations created by the new options in content and access means.

In this paper we present a review of available educational technologies and analyze their impact on the efforts to deliver anytime, anywhere education. First, we construct and analyze a 3D space for anytime, anywhere education. Then, on this space, we map out the extent of pedagogical support for each possible modality using the three main descriptors. This approach also serves to identify overlooked opportunities to meet educational goals through technologies which may also have spin-offs relevant to the workplace. Finally, we propose pedagogical-technological combinations that can help education become an effective driver for technological innovation instead of being one of its big consumers.

II. EDUCATIONAL CONTENT

Content, although it is the main asset of education, is an ill-defined entity. Educational content is a mix of information and knowledge ¹. Knowledge content is usually an indicator of quality, e.g. the best books are supposed to have more expert knowledge as opposed to the lower ranked reference material. The World Wide Web has demystified content access and has created a perception of abundance of free-content which has changed the value system. However, the supply of proprietary content has remained high, and the publishers have adopted a three-pronged scheme to reach the consumer: paper, CD-ROM, and the Web.

Instead of using content categories based on media derived types we have chosen to classify electronic content by educational objective because, in most cases, the educational objectives determine the levels of quality, sophistication, and types of media used. The content types are:

• Home study, for individuals outside other categories below, i.e. self improvement, hobbyists, how-to shows (CD-ROM, Videos, Broadcast TV, paper)
• Professional training (mixed media)
• Credit course (mostly paper)
• Degree programs (mostly paper)

We will discuss the interaction of content with the other two descriptors, access and method, in the following sections. It will be seen that access and method can be sources of added value to content. In the end, content effectiveness must be judged based on whether it enables the transmission and creation of knowledge in the context of its intended application.

Technologies that Support Content
There are many technological resources to deal with content creation, management and storage:

1. Multimedia authoring tools for both CD-ROM and Web (well over 100 available).
2. Presentation tools and word processing tools.
3. Virtual reality languages and environments (e.g. AlphaWorld, VRML).
4. Hypermedia languages and browsers.
5. Interactivity-enabling Web programming (e.g. Java).
6. Course structuring tools.
7. Search engines and data mining.
8. Storage and retrieval.
9. Digital watermarking.

Given that there is a strong interest in reusability, the main issue in content is standardization [15]. New technological opportunities in content creation may not emerge until standards issues are settled. However, available technology can still be substantially improved.

Presently, the main objectives of content creation are to use multimedia to enable interactivity and to provide structures for flexible usage (e.g. course chapters and sections, learning objectives and links). Content creation remains a labor intensive task which requires specialized knowledge of Instructional Design principles [17]. Current work on intelligent authoring systems is aimed at helping with content creation and structuring.

Another technological area of interest for content is data searching and mining useful for content creation and maintenance. Copyright protection technologies such as watermarking are also relevant and are complemented by secure access methods.

III. ACCESS

The terms anytime, anywhere apply mainly to access. Content must reach as many users as possible across distance and time. We classify education access in three modes ² :

• Local, or same place at the same time (e.g. electronic classroom)
• Synchronous, or different places at the same time
• Asynchronous, or different places at different times

Each of the access modes can use more than one pedagogical method, but not all possible methods have been investigated and tested.

Technologies that Support Access
There is a variety of software and hardware technologies to support content access. The following list includes mainly telecommunication resources readily applicable to access:

1. Modem (over POTS), cable modem, T1, ISDN, ATM, LAN, and WAN.
2. E-mail, Web browser (plus telnet, ftp).
3. CD-ROM, and CD-I.
4. Application sharing and related groupware.
5. Encryption and secure access techniques.

These technologies fit into the same multi-layer model of generic networking technologies, i.e. physical layer, data and network layer, transport layer, middleware layer (i.e. session and presentation layer), and application layer.

The most interesting technological development regarding access is the appearance of educational groupware, or the education-oriented middleware layer. New products have been introduced which support interactive tele-lecturing, application sharing, remote student testing, audio and video conferencing, class feedback, progress tracking, Web access, etc. Examples are LearnLinc I-Net, BrightLight, and Learning Space. Some of these products are bundled with authoring tools or are compatible with content created by popular authoring tools. Table 1 includes a summary of educational groupware.

Table 1

IV. METHOD

Learning and teaching methods have a strong impact on the success or failure of education. The main categories of pedagogical methods, include:

• Consultative, reference
• Lecture, tutorial
• Exploratory
• Apprenticeship
• Collaborative, group-oriented

Support of specific learning mechanisms such as socratic dialogue, coaching, constructivist learning, and group scafolding are possible in most methods. The technological opportunities to support methods are mostly related to creating suitable content (and access to a lesser extent), but they are very specific and emerge in response to requirements such as:

1. Telepresence for near real-life distance interaction
2. Collaborative learning.
3. Productivity and performance support.
4. Hands-on instruction.
5. Group formation support.
6. Accurate simulations for supervised and unsupervised exploratory learning.

Technologies that Support Learning and Teaching Methods
Technological support for learning and teaching methods is an active subject of research. The best approach, which is not always applied, is to match the educational goals with appropriate technologies. Examples of supporting technologies include:

1. CSCW, virtual meeting and learning spaces [21].
2. Multicast-based group videoconferencing.
3. Electronic performance support systems [4].
4. Diagrammatic representations for representation of discussions.
5. Adaptivity and multimodality for individual and group user interfaces.
6. Presentation and tele-lecturing support systems of various degrees of interactivity.
7. Simulations, virtual and augmented reality.
8. Appropriate knowledge representations for proper capture and indexing of learning sessions.
9. Knowledge repositories.
10. Knowledge management.

Historically, the dominant lecturing method has attracted technological support mainly for synchronous and asynchronous broadcasting of information. This fact has contributed to build mainly technological support for broadcast-oriented architectures.

More recently, the interest in collaborative learning has attracted researchers who see education as a natural match for CSCW, groupware, and group decision support systems. The payoff is potentially high because students who are versed in computer supported teamwork are more likely to succeed in the workplace of the future. At the same time, if technologists can design environments that are effective for both working and learning, these environments would have broad applicability and increased payoff.

The order of the technologies listed above corresponds to the degree of relevance to collaboration and group support. Technologies which can build upon existing and future educational middleware have the highest potential to support far-reaching pedagogical goals.

Valuable niche markets exist for technologies which can support hands-on for teletraining (e.g. augmented reality), and Internet services for learning communities.

V. CLUSTERING OF EDCATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES

We classify educational technologies in a three dimensional space in which content, access and method are placed on each axis. This will enable us to analyze the present situation, identify the main technological drivers, and identify overlooked opportunities. For simplicity we present first the main three access modes in three separate graphs, and then we analyze the overall picture.

Figure 1 shows the graph for local access mode. It shows qualitative estimates of the extent of technological support for different content types versus pedagogical method. The estimates have been normalized across all graphs.

Figure 1. Technological Support for Local Access Mode

The graph illustrates the following observations:

1. The use of multimedia reference material for consulting is more or less evenly distributed among content categories.
2. Lecturing is the method with the most technological support. Lower support is shown for professional training and credit courses to reflect the lower amount of local lecturing used for such types of content.
3. The use of computer simulations for explorative learning has wide applicability but remains underdeveloped for most content types except professional training (e.g. airline, space, and the military)
4. Learning by apprenticeship is mainly found in the work place and has proper funding to use technological resources [11]. However, we can say that the technology is not apprenticeship specific.
5. The collaborative method, which is mainly found in professional training, has a growing technological support.
6. Home study ³ is a market niche where reference material (mainly encyclopedias), and simulations (e.g. 3D landscaping) on CD-ROM have introduced technology effectively.

The main technological drivers, or technologies which have had an impact on the shape and distribution of the graph in Figure 1 are:

• Multimedia authoring tools
• Multimedia classroom technologies
• CD-ROM

For local access, the technological support appears strong where (i) a well established pedagogy is present, namely in the classroom, (ii) budget is available, e.g. professional training, and (iii) technology has contributed to ignite interest in other methods, e.g. through the technology-enabled advent of cyberspace and cyberculture.

Figure 2. Technological Support for Asynchronous Access Mode

Figure 2 shows the graph for asynchronous access and reflects the following observations:

1. Consultation of reference material over the Internet is significant and occurs at a comparable level for most content types. Consulting a group of peers through mailing lists, newsgroups, and discussion spaces is also a significant resource.
2. Asynchronous replay of lectures and presentations using video tapes, broadcast TV, and the Web is noticeable and on the rise.
3. Most professional training programs which use asynchronous access (as well as local and synchronous) emphasize collaborative learning. Credit courses in asynchronous mode tend to use group activities as well. Notes-derived technologies have started to expand from corporate to educational environments.
4. Asynchronous access to simulations for exploratory learning are slowly appearing on the Web as it has become possible to convert their CD-ROM versions.
5. The graph shows emergent activity in collaobrative methods across all content modalities. This reflects interest in Problem Based Learning (PBL) and collaborative design, mainly for professional training.

For asynchronous access, the main technological drivers are the Web, e-mail, newsgroups, and broadcast video.

Figure 3. Technological Support for Synchronous Access Mode

Figure 3 shows the graph for synchronous access and reflects the following observations:

1. Lecturing is still the most supported method, as a carry-over effect from the local access mode. The main supporting technologies for lecturing are Interactive Television (ITV), while videoconferencing is a close second. Synchronous lecturing exists mostly for professional training and credit courses. However, it is also used in many degree programs throughout the USA.
2. Collaborative learning is supported across the board by synchronous Web browsing applications such as [7], which can be combined with desktop videoconferencing. These technologies are mostly used for professional training and distance education (both degree and credit programs). The larger dot size for professional training in Figure 3 is explained by the availability of intranets and the experience with group support systems and collaborative engineering tools in the workplace. Group videoconferencing, i.e. the support of multi-point, multi-participant meetings, although in a developmental stage (i.e. Mbone deployment for education has only recently started), is likely to have a major impact on collaborative learning. The key issues are multicast standards and quality of service.
3. Synchronous, multi-user environments for exploratory learning can be derived from virtual world systems. Although not abundant, the work in this area is worth noting.
4. Low-end videotelephony and data sharing technologies will enable ancillary consultation with peers for all content types and methods.

The main technological drivers are interactive TV, videoconferencing, groupware, and virtual worlds. For both synchronous and asynchronous modalities, the technological drivers have mainly played the role of access enablers. Synchronous and asynchronous access technologies fall within the realm of the multi-billion dollar market of distance education. The expected increase in the bandwidth of access channels is likely to result, to a limited extent, in increased circle sizes in our graphics, but the breadth and depth of technological support across pedagogical methods will depend mostly on the joint work of educators, researchers, and program administrators.

Figure 4. Technological Drivers Across Access Modalities

In Figure 4 we can see that the technological drivers have enabled broader access to traditional lecturing and have also helped to populate the graph mainly across content types, with some initial spread across pedagogical methods. The technologies which have had the strongest influence on education are Interactive TV (ITV), CD-ROM, and the Word Wide Web. ITV and the Web are the core technologies for the bulk of the distance education programs. CD-ROM has made a tremendous impact on education in general at all levels by introducing interactivity to content. The Web has been the development medium for the growing Asynchronous Learning Networks or ALNs.

Except for the Web, the main technological drivers are ready-to-use technologies which have been adopted without significant changes in the educational system or its methods. The net effects have been extending the traditional classroom and introducing reference material and interactive content for individual study.

There is a technological opportunity to improve synchronous and asynchronous access. However, technology alone will not be sufficient to significantly increase growth and diversity of anytime, anywhere education. Overlooked opportunities exist to go beyond this limited enhancement of the current situation. In the following section we discuss four selected combinations of technological and pedagogical drivers which, when combined, will be able to exploit the overlooked opportunities.

VI. THE NEXT GENERATION OF TECHNO-PEDAGOGICAL DRIVERS

The technology push has been dominant because of the inertia of the traditional educational system. As the educational system evolves, it is realistic to expect a pedagogy-driven era of innovation. In the following subsections we present instances of technology serving the goals of pedagogy, which are likely to become the main driving forces of future of anytime, anywhere education

A. Asynchronous Learning Networks for Collaboration and Apprenticeship
ALNs strive to provide anytime, anywhere instruction [20]. ALN practitioners are interested in objective improvement in content quality, pedagogy, and productivity. Using a group centered approach, ALN teachers are facilitators of collaborative learning and foster student membership in a community or learners [2]. Coaching and mentorship are not uncommon. Students learn by doing, by discussing and debating with others, and by discovering through searching content. This pedagogical model is supported by computer networking technology, e-mail, newsgroups, Web authoring tools, interactive multimedia content, conferencing tools (e.g. Lotus Notes), electronic performance support tools, and synchronous communication and interaction tools (ALNs are not restricted to the synchronous mode).

The present success and long term impact of ALNs is clearly due to its focus on group learning and in its emphasis on meeting pedagogical goals by using and integrating technology without restricting themselves to any particular telecommunications or networking technology. In fact, the meaning of ALN has been proposed to be Anytime-anywhere Learning Networks.

B. Computer Supported Collaborative Learning
Instructional Technology (IT) is the study of the use of technology for instructional purposes, such as in Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) and Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS). Computer Supported Collaborative Learning or CSCL is an area of IT research focussed on the use of technology as a mediator for the application of collaborative methods of instruction. In CSCL pedagogy is the driver and it has well matched technological partners, namely Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), and Artificial Intelligence (AI).

The CSCW and AI research areas are enjoying a comeback in the face of the powerful, and yet economical, computing and networking environments which have removed some of the performance bottlenecks and created new opportunities in today's market. Although CSCW and AI have traditionally had small educational application tracks, they are now emerging as important supporting technologies within the main education market. CSCW provides middleware for data sharing and meeting support while AI provides means to implement advanced models of instruction and performance support.

CSCW has addressed the need to share tools and work environments, the need to communicate using multiple media, and the need to provide seamless user interfaces [8]. From the work on sharing text editors and supporting business meetings, CSCW technology has proven its ability to generate successful products [13].

AI has several means to support collaborative learning. The knowledge engineering techniques of the 80's could hold the key to building collaboration-oriented content. Adaptivity in the user interface and in the facilitation of individual and group work are also possible through AI techniques [12].

C. Virtual Worlds for Group Exploration and Discovery
Exploration-oriented pedagogies based on constructivist theory hold that one learns through a process of subjective construction enabled by experience. Experiential learning and learning by discovery are thus enabled by simulated environments which foster personal inquiry and discovery. The technologies used to create virtual worlds have tremendous potential to enable this type of learning.

Meeting places based on Virtual Reality (VR) have quickly become the ultimate expression of cyberlife (see a review of shared worlds in [16]). Their success as virtual social environments has motivated many researchers to attempt to create virtual worlds for collaborative learning and working. Initial work showed easy applicability of chatrooms to children's virtual classrooms [14]. However, further research is necessary to transform the seemingly supplemental nature of social meeting rooms into an integral part of learning spaces. Multimodal haptic interfaces support the creation of deep learning experiences such as simulated surgery [10]. Artificial intelligence can provide modeling and computational techniques to create a realistic feeling for simulated environments [18].

D. Productivity-Oriented Group Videoconferencing
Videoconferencing, one of the technological drivers of distance education, is likely to grow and evolve into a major factor. Mainly due to the acceptance of coding and transmission standards (i.e. H.261, H.323, ITU-T.120), it is expected that the videoconferencing market will reach $5 billion before the turn of the century. Sophistication of videoconferencing for distance education has increased significantly, e.g. local and remote camera control for pan, zoom and tilt, pre-set positions, and speaker tracking. However, expected improvements in the quality of audio and video in videoconferencing systems are not likely to remove the limitations of current systems. Compared to face-to-face work, videoconferencing lacks the feeling of closeness and the ability to carry out collaborative work with full awareness of everyone's activity at both the social and task levels.

Videoconferencing systems are evolving to become fully compatible with data sharing, Web surfing, and groupware. Research recently reported at conferences such as Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), and Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) clearly outlines the potential of videoconferencing to enhance productivity by supporting group decision making, conversational awareness, telepresence, and collaborative work [9,23].

Figure 5 illustrates a possible scenario in future videoconferencing systems. A seamless integration of local and remote participants would be possible through life-size images, virtual stages, merge of virtual and augmented reality, multimodal interfaces, and visually-oriented electronic performance support tools. The group view may include live video of the participants, or graphical renditions of their avatars, as in the case of those participating through head-mounted VR devices.

Figure 5. Future Group Videoconferencing

Due to the influence of virtual worlds and the readily available computing power of PCs and Laptops, videoconferencing technology will enter a stage of product differentiation based on social and interaction-oriented features. The objective will be to enable high productivity through near-real-life experience and enhanced-reality techniques.

There is also a strong interest in improving the visual experience using alternative display methods (e.g. projection, VidiWalls, head-mounted devices as shown in Figure 5). These displays have the advantage of allowing life-size images and creating detectable visual parallax that enables a significant amount of gestural communication.

Integration of the audiovisual channel of videoconferencing with virtual worlds technology and groupware will make it a well suited technological combination to support pedagogies such as apprenticeship, collaborative, and exploratory learning. Examples of research in this direction are the augmented reality guided troubleshooting system [9] and simulated surgery [10].

E. Discussion
The ever increasing influence of technology on education has contributed to create new expectations regarding quality and availability. It is however up to the educators to capitalize on the new opportunities to drive the evolution of traditional learning and teaching. The analysis of the content-method-access graphs can give us a deep understanding of technology-supported education. We should consider this triad of descriptors as the pillars of a system which cannot be effective if it lacks balance. For example, putting too much technology to increase access to lecturing is like flooding many diverse markets with one single product. In a more balanced situation, pedagogical diversity could give rise to abundance and variety of content which in turn could take advantage of the expected increase in access capacity.

There is potential for applying collaborative, explorative and apprenticeship methods to synchronous and asynchronous access through properly matched technologies. The expected bandwidth available over regular communication channels by itself will not suffice to meet the requirements of education. Synchronous and asynchronous access to education must have the requirement of reliable quality of service (QoS). In the same way that workflow analysis is used to meet workplace requirements for QoS [5,22], generic pedagogical goals and processes must also be used in order to bring about effective educational technologies.

The products specific to group learning which have appeared in the last 2 years (e.g. LearnLinc I-Net, BrightLight, Lotus Learning Space, Symposium, Convene) are group oriented but not strongly driven by a pedagogy other than lecturing. Those products include features such as data and workspace sharing, group discussion, and some also incorporate or offer compatibility with audio and videoconferencing products. In order to incorporate alternative learning methods, it is important that initially the products offer flexible communication tools, and unrestricted utilization of content. Later on, such products will be able to offer a richer variety of pedagogy-supporting tools based on requirements analysis.

Technology intensive education in the classroom and at a distance is likely to be supported by a combination of existing and emerging technologies. Our own work on technological support for Problem Based Learning (PBL), a pedagogy for collaborative learning [1], has helped us appreciate the potential of matching pedagogy with technology [3]. But we have also learned that there is a substantial amount of integration of available technologies to be done before the pedagogical requirements can be strictly addressed.

The value of teaching through collaboration, exploration, and mentorship extends beyond the educational environment. It has untapped potential to increase future performance in the workplace as the same enabling technologies will be available to provide work-learn environments.

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Footnotes

1. Knowledge can be defined as interpreted information, and knowledge becomes informatized once it is printed or quickly thereafter.
2. The fourth mode or same place at different time is of no interest because it is not used and its possible requirements (e.g. persistence) can be subsumed by other methods.
3. Local access for home study entails having all resources locally. Synchronous and asynchronous access in home study mean modalities to access content.